VIPVs are seen as a viable environment- and nature-promoting transportation source, as solar energy is provided onboard, along with batteries, so that vehicles do not have to depend entirely on external charging resources.
Recent Advances in Solar Cell Technology for Transportation Applications
Dr.Raj Shah, Syed Mohammed Tahsin, and Mathew Roshan | Koehler Instrument Company
Abstract
VIPVs (Vehicle-Integrated PVs) provide a cleaner energy alternative. They reduce pollution and enhance the energy efficiency of modern transport systems. This review highlights recent solar double-barreling technologies. It focuses on perovskite-silicon tandem cells, flexible and lightweight modules, and semi-transparent glazing for better vehicle integration. The review then categorizes solar technologies by efficiency, durability, and application. It also analyzes intelligent energy management systems (EMS) that utilize solar energy, batteries, and hybrid powertrains. Key benefits are increased driving range, reduced battery cycling, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Challenges include a limited surface area for photovoltaics (PVs), shading effects on energy output, and mechanical stress on solar modules. Finally, the review identifies research avenues, including innovative materials, integration systems, and lifecycle sustainability. These are critical to developing VIPVs as a clean and resilient mobility solution.
Introduction
The global transportation sector is facing an unprecedented imperative for decarbonization as governments, businesses, and international organizations strive to meet climate targets, adopt electrification trends, and transition away from fossil fuels while maintaining mobility and economic growth [1]. With VIPVs providing a distributed, on-board energy source that enhances energy resilience across automotive, aerospace, and marine platforms, the technology decreases reliance on centralized electricity grids and complements battery-electric systems. The importance of integrating renewable energy into transportation is increasingly being acknowledged [2]. Notable developments in solar cell materials and system architectures have resulted from recent technology advancements between 2022 and 2025: Flexible and lightweight modules allow conformal installation on curved vehicle surfaces, high-efficiency perovskite-silicophosphate tandem cells now show enhanced thermal and photochemical stability for real-world deployment, and semi-transparent solar cells enable energy generation in glazing applications without sacrificing visibility or aesthetics [3]. These developments are combined with advanced EMS that maximize hybrid solar-battery performance by utilizing dynamic load balancing, intelligent maximum power point tracking (MPPT), and predictive algorithms, which can mitigate the effects of partial shading and temporary environmental conditions. Policy changes and regulatory frameworks are crucial in determining how sustainable energy technologies are implemented and embraced [4]. Simultaneously, it is essential to critically evaluate the broader sustainability of solar technologies and their integration into the transportation sector. The environmental and social effects of raw material extraction, manufacturing energy intensity, and end-of-life waste management for both photovoltaic (PV) modules and lithium-ion storage devices are among the ongoing issues that research identifies along the solar and battery value chain [5]. Enhanced recycling procedures, advancements in material circularity, and the adoption of safer, less resource-intensive processes are all essential to ensure lifecycle sustainability. Additionally, compared to stationary applications, solar modules intended for transportation are subject to more severe operating stresses. Abrasion from airborne or road particles, thermal cycling, mechanical vibrations, and UV can all hasten material fatigue and lower long-term efficiency [5]. These approaches are partially addressed by recent device-level advancements: semi-transparent PV for glazing must balance optical and electrical trade-offs while maintaining weatherability; perovskite-silicon tandems necessitate sealing strategies that suppress moisture ingress and ion migration under heat and illumination; and flexible and lightweight laminate stacks reduce mass and conform to curved surfaces but places stricter demand on barrier films, encapsulants, and interconnect reliability [3]. In mobile situations, system-level controls are similarly important. To stabilise yield and protect cells, module-level power electronics, a quick MPPT, and mismatch-tolerant stringing are required due to intermittent shading from structural elements and dynamic irradiance during motion [2,3]. Furthermore, recent research highlights that end-of-life plans and materials innovation are closely linked to sustainability in transport-integrated PVs. Research conducted between 2022 and 2025 has demonstrated advancements in solvent-free encapsulation techniques that reduce manufacturing energy intensity, closed-loop recycling for perovskite-silicon tandems, and circular material designs that enable the selective recovery of indium, tin, and rare metals used in thin-film cells [5]. Simultaneously, the development of lithium-ion batteries is shifting towards anodes that are silicon-dominant and cobalt-free, which not only enhances performance but also alleviates concerns about ethics and sourcing. These technological developments align with durability enhancements that directly address the more demanding mechanical and environmental conditions of vehicle deployment, such as UV-stabilized encapsulants, flexible substrates tested under accelerated vibration, and fluoropolymer coatings that are resistant to abrasion. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the latest advancements in VIPVs and their role in sustainable transportation. It discusses advancements in solar cell materials, module design, and system-level power electronics, as well as lifecycle issues related to material procurement, manufacturing energy consumption, and end-of-life recyclability. Emphasis is given to developments between 2022 and 2025 in perovskite-silicon tandem cells, flexible and thin laminates, semi-transparent PV glazing, intelligent EMS, and circular materials, as well as cobalt-free battery chemistry. By examining both the technological potential and the durability and sustainability limitations of VIPVs, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current State of the Art and the directions required to develop resilient, decarbonized mobility in automotive, aerospace, and marine sectors.
Conventional PV Architectures in the Transport Sector
Conventional solar cells, driven by crystalline silicon and thin-film technologies, remain the cornerstone for PV integration in vehicles. Though efficient and well-established, these architectures present unique challenges when adapted to transport applications.
Traditional Silicon PVs in Transport
Crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar PV technology remains the dominant technology for both stationary and transport-integrated applications due to its high power conversion efficiency, mature production processes, and well-characterized long-term degradation mechanisms [6]. Low surface area, weight constraints, and dynamic mechanical stress—such as vibrations and shocks that cause microcracks, fatigue in solder joints, and interconnect failure—present unique challenges to crystalline silicon modules in transport applications, which ultimately reduce module reliability and lifetime energy output [6]. New developments in wafer and cell design, including inverted-pyramidal geometries, high-aspect-ratio surface texturing, and smaller-sized wafers, have been proposed to enhance light capture efficiency while maintaining mechanical stability, thereby overcoming these issues [7]. As thermal cycling in cars or airplanes may result in differential expansion, delamination, and stress accumulation in the cell stack, encapsulation techniques and substrate interfaces gained significance [6]. Nowadays, anti-reflective coatings, hydrophobic or self-cleaning encapsulants, and passivation layers on the surface are designed to ensure optical performance and quantum efficiency under partial shading, inhomogeneous irradiance, and dynamic environmental conditions [7]. Transport deployment also entails rigorous reliability testing, such as accelerated aging schemes, bending fatigue tests, and thermal cycling studies, under simulated mechanical, thermal, and UV stress to ensure module integrity [7]. To ensure a steady power input in solar–battery hybrid systems, recent research also focuses on power electronics integration at the module level to stabilize the output during intermittent shading and high-frequency irradiance fluctuations [7].
Thin-Film Technologies (CIGS, CdTe)
Thin-film PVs—in particular, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) technologies—have become attractive substitutes for crystalline silicon in transport-integrated applications due to their inherent mechanical flexibility, lower mass per unit area, and suitability for curved or irregular vehicle surfaces. Roll-to-roll processing in flexible CIGS modules, which utilize metal foils or polyimide as substrates, reduces fabrication costs and material consumption while enabling conformal installation on aerodynamic vehicle surfaces [8]. Co-evaporation and sputtering techniques, along with other advancements in absorber layer deposition, have enhanced compositional uniformity and grain size control, resulting in improved operational stability and quantum efficiency under mechanical stress and thermal cycling, which are common in automotive and aerospace environments [9]. Additional options for energy-generating glazing are provided by cadmium telluride thin films, especially in semi-transparent forms, which combine optical tunability and moderate efficiency for incorporation into windows, sunroofs, and canopies [10]. According to recent research, balancing transparency and long-term durability under actual environmental conditions requires careful consideration of sputtering parameters, interface engineering, and thin-film thickness optimisation [9]. To prevent moisture intrusion and UV-induced deterioration caused by particulate matter during transport and deployment, device-level encapsulation techniques and barrier coatings are essential for preserving long-term performance [9]. Furthermore, mismatch-tolerant circuit structures and module-level electrical connections are being used more frequently to reduce heat gradients and localised shading effects, which stabilise energy production in hybrid solar-battery systems [9]. Building on the versatility of thin films, semi-transparent CIGS/cadmium telluride thin-film modules enable dual-purpose applications, producing electricity while allowing controlled light transmission [10]. The CIGS/cadmium telluride heterojunction may be precisely controlled in terms of layer thickness and optical characteristics through optimised sputtering deposition, which enhances visible light transmittance and energy conversion efficiency [10]. Modular integration into passenger cabins or cockpit panels is made possible by device-level innovation that improves photon absorption without sacrificing transparency, such as selective electrode placement and anti-reflective coatings [10]. Furthermore, in partially shaded setups, these structures mitigate hot-spot formation and voltage mismatch while maintaining consistent output, demonstrating robustness under temperature fluctuations characteristic of automotive conditions [10].
Recent Advances in Solar Cell Technology (2022-2025)
High-Efficiency Tandem and Perovskite-Silicon cells
The recent advances in perovskite–silicon and tandem solar cells are particularly pertinent for transportation use, where efficiency should be optimized across limited surface areas. The last three years have witnessed a surge in both laboratory breakthroughs and deployable implementations. Two-terminal tandem monolithic device power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) are now surpassing the 30% mark in reproducible research achievements, with reported efficiencies of 31–32% under standard test conditions —a step change from conventional crystalline silicon PVs, which plateau at approximately 26% [11]. This efficiency gain is desirable for electric cars, trucks, buses, and aerospace systems with limited roof, hood, or fuselage space that require maximum energy density. Along with raw efficiency, tandem devices leverage perovskite's bandgap tunability to optimize current matching with silicon and hence minimize thermalization losses, and have been engineered into thinner, lighter active layers that cut material use by orders of magnitude and enable flexible form factors for direct integration onto aerodynamic or curved surfaces without affecting vehicle aesthetics [12]. In the case of VIPVs, it means more onboard power generation, which directly corresponds to more extended driving range, reduced cycling frequency of the battery, and lithium-ion pack degradation—an aspect that finds direct relevance to heavy-duty transport fleets and aerospace equipment where reliability and cost of battery replacement are mission-critical [13]. Stability under real transport conditions remains the primary impediment to commercialization. Unlike the stationary PV modules, on-board solar systems undergo continuous thermal cycling, vibration, UV exposure, humidity fluctuations, and mechanical stress, all of which trigger perovskite degradation, phase segregation, and interfacial instability. Recent reviews emphasize that perovskite layers undergo ion migration and interdiffusion at charge-transport interfaces, resulting in hysteresis and increased efficiency loss compared to stable silicon subcells [13]. Overcoming such defects, researchers from 2023 to 2025 have designed improved encapsulation protocols, multifunctional interfacial passivation layers, and thermally stable charge-transport materials, such as dopant-free hole transporters, which significantly enhance resistance to temperature extremes and moisture penetration [11]. In addition, compositional engineering with mixed-cation and mixed-halide perovskites has also been demonstrated to suppress ion migration and improve long-term optoelectronic stability with layered interface modifiers lowering defect densities that otherwise catalyze degradation [12]. In terms of manufacturing, the last three years have seen breathtaking advances toward scale and affordability: slot-die coating, blade coating, and thermal evaporation deposition technologies have been adapted for large-area module production, with some roll-to-roll pilot operations already achieving tandem mini-modules of >25% efficiency across areas exceeding 100 cm² [12]. This matters for transportation integration because car surfaces require not merely even coverage but mechanical flexibility. Vapor-deposited tandems, for instance, offer improved reproducibility and stability, making them suitable for industrial upscaling. Additionally, techno-economic analyses indicate that tandem devices may have levelized costs of electricity similar to, or even lower than, those of traditional silicon, provided stability hurdles are addressed, particularly in applications involving high-value assets such as electric trucks, passenger buses, or solar aircraft [11]. Most noticeably, early prototype projects have already begun to highlight perovskite–silicon tandems in VIPV uses, where simulation reveals the partial coating of a car roof with 30% efficient tandem modules can supply 15–20% of daily driving power under average sunlight, with aerospace simulations indicating weight-normalized power gains of more than 200 W/kg, opening the door to future PV-powered aircraft concepts [13]. A collective set of these advances—from breakthroughs in efficiency, interfacial stabilization, scalable production, and real-world demonstrations—positions tandem perovskite–silicon solar cells as among the most promising candidates for transport applications with unprecedented efficiency and integration flexibility as continued material and device engineering continually closes the stability gap under the harsh environmental conditions typical of mobile devices.
Flexible, Lightweight Modules
Flexible and lightweight PV modules represent a key enabling technology for VIPVs. They address the fundamental challenges of weight, rigidity, and surface conformity inherent in conventional crystalline silicon panels. Recent studies emphasize that traditional glass-encapsulated modules, although durable, impose weight penalties of 10–15 kg per square meter. This renders them unsuitable for electric passenger cars, where added mass directly reduces range and efficiency [14]. To overcome this, substrates such as ultra-thin tempered glass, polymer laminates, and metal foils have been developed. These can support high-efficiency thin-film and perovskite-based solar cells without compromising mechanical strength. Modules derived from these substrates weigh as little as 2–4 kg per square meter. This reduces overall module weight by more than 70% compared to conventional systems, thereby immediately improving vehicle performance by lowering rolling resistance and energy consumption [14]. These substrates also offer greater flexibility and conformability, enabling PVs to be seamlessly incorporated into curved aerodynamic surfaces such as hoods, roofs, and doors. Flexible laminates and polymer films, for example, can bend to adhere to the radius of curvature of the bodywork while maintaining high light absorption. The objective is to maximize solar harvesting on non-planar geometries [15]. Aerodynamic studies have also shown that flush, conformal integration reduces drag coefficients relative to rigid add-on panels. Energy gains due to PVs integration are not offset by aerodynamic losses [14]. Lightweight modules expand the range of potential installation surfaces, from roofs to solar harvesting on doors, trunks, and fenders. These surfaces were previously impractical with rigid modules [14]. Parallel manufacturing developments are making large-scale deployment feasible. Roll-to-roll processing, slot-die coating, and vacuum vapor deposits have been demonstrated as scalable methods for producing thin, flexible solar modules with industrial throughput. These methods maintain mechanical robustness under bending, vibration, and thermal cycling [14]. They are particularly well-suited to the production of perovskite-based modules with lightweight form factors, which are not only efficient but also low-cost in mass production scenarios. Experiments with test vehicles confirm that flexible modules deliver stable output under real-world driving conditions. Under such conditions, cyclic mechanical stress, UV, and constant vibration would degrade conventional rigid modules [14]. In terms of geometric integration, it demonstrates that the shape of automobile roofs has a direct impact on attainable coverage ratios. Small curvature radii result in inactive regions when rigid cells are used [15]. With segmented, tessellated, or flexible module designs, coverage efficiencies of over 90% can be achieved. This holds even for small passenger cars with highly curved bodies [15]. Furthermore, note that curvature optimization not only increases the active area but also improves the sun's angular incidence. This optimization can raise effective daily energy yields by a few percentage points compared to flat-panel integration [15]. This direct solar surface utilization translates to more onboard solar generation, less frequent battery charging, and less Lithium-ion pack degradation through fewer deep discharge cycles. Beyond technical feasibility, light and flexible PV modules also provide aesthetic and functional advantages. They can be imperceptibly laminated into painted or coated vehicle exteriors, preserving the vehicle design and generating renewable energy [15].
Comparison of weight per square meter for conventional glass-based modules, flexible laminates, and polymer film-based modules. Flexible laminate and polymer film designs show a 67% and 83% reduction in weight, respectively, relative to conventional glass.
Transparent and Semi-Transparent Solar Cells for Vehicle Glazing
The integration of transparent and semi-transparent solar cells into vehicle glazing represents a technologically sophisticated approach to combining energy harvesting with the structural and aesthetic requirements of automobiles, leveraging advances in optical engineering, materials science, and PV device design. Semi-transparent solar cells (STSCs) have evolved from early dye-sensitized and organic PV designs, which featured VLT in the 20–30% range but were limited by relatively low (PCE) of ~8–12% and environmental instability [16], to more recent perovskite-based devices in which bandgap engineering and multilayer interface engineering have rendered far superior performance available. The recent semi-transparent perovskite solar cells (ST-PSCs) can now achieve power conversion efficiency values exceeding 15% with 20% to 40% transparency by employing wide-bandgap perovskite absorbers (1.7–1.9 eV), transparent conducting oxides (such as indium tin oxide and aluminum-doped zinc oxide), and nanostructured electrodes with minimal scattering [17]. They selectively absorb ultraviolet and portions of the near-infrared (NIR) range while transmitting most of the visible spectrum, allowing for both substantial energy harvesting and minimal distortion of visual transparency. Color rendering indices (CRI) of over 90 have been realized in optimized structures [17]. At the same time, parasitic absorption within transparent electrodes and interlayers remains a basic loss mechanism, where optical modeling studies show that reflection and absorption losses can reduce theoretical maximum PCE by more than 30% unless carefully compensated by advanced anti-reflective coatings and photon management strategies [17]. From a thermal standpoint, vehicle integration also imposes additional constraints, such that glazing-mounted STSCs must endure high operating temperatures above 80 °C under solar load, as well as thermal cycling with seasonality; encapsulation materials with robust UV-blocking ability and thermally stable transport layers are therefore paramount to long-term stability and minimizing hysteresis effects [16, 17]. Furthermore, recent advancements in innovative switchable glazing technologies demonstrate that incorporating STSCs with electrochromic or thermochromic layers enables active control of daylight and thermal flux, where windows modulate their transmittance in response to ambient conditions, reducing cabin overheating and air conditioning load while providing auxiliary power [18]. For example, hybrid electrochromic-semi-transparent solar cell devices have been shown to reduce solar heat gain coefficients by up to 40% compared to conventional automotive glass, resulting in corresponding savings in cooling energy demand, a particularly significant consideration for electric vehicles, where HVAC loads directly impact lost driving range [18]. There remain fabrication challenges, particularly in scaling up the roll-to-roll processing of large-area, curved ST-PCEs that must conform to aerodynamic glass shapes without cracking or delamination, as well as in retaining optical transmission uniformity and electrical continuity across the surface [17]. Durability is also a limiting factor, as perovskite absorbers are highly prone to moisture ingress, ion migration, and prolonged exposure to UV, so there is a necessity to develop better encapsulation stacks with multilayer barrier films that can survive >1,000 hours of damp-heat testing with >90% initial performance maintained [17]. However, the path to innovation is clear: semi-transparent PVs for building and vehicle glazing are progressing from laboratory-scale prototypes to practical realization.
Relationship between visible light transmission (VLT) and power conversion efficiency (PCE) for various PV technologies, including organic PV, dye-sensitized, and ST-PSCs. The shaded region represents the optimal zone for automotive applications.
Improvement in power conversion efficiency (PCE) and visible light transmission (VLT) over time for organic PV, dye-sensitized solar cells, and ST-PSC technologies, highlighting significant efficiency gains in modern ST-PSC devices (2024).
Integrated Energy Management Systems
VIPVs' onboard EMS have developed to enable highly adaptive, real-time coordination between hybrid solar–battery systems for maximum energy harvesting, storage, and distribution in dynamic transportation environments. Hybrid MPPT algorithms now extend across multiple PV arrays and storage units simultaneously, dynamically controlling voltage and current to achieve instantaneous energy maximization despite partial shading, irregular irradiance, thermal variations, and mechanical vibrations inherent in transport applications [19]. Forecast-based dispatch methods utilize predictive modeling of solar irradiance, traffic patterns, flight schedules, or route-based energy consumption to proactively allocate energy to critical systems, minimize unnecessary battery cycling, and extend the overall storage lifespan while maintaining stable power delivery [20]. In addition, real-time reactive power compensation has also been demonstrated to correct voltage sags, harmonics, and transient power imbalance between battery banks and PV arrays, which is critical for high-power vehicle subsystems and compliance with onboard electric standards [21]. Advanced EMS architectures now feature modular power electronics, distributed sensors, and adaptive feedback loops that monitor in real time PV performance, battery state-of-charge, module temperature, and load demand, with dynamic redistribution of energy to prevent overvoltage, overcurrent, or thermal stress while stabilizing output for auxiliary and propulsion loads [19, 20]. Data-driven and machine learning-based predictive algorithms also maximize system performance by analyzing historical irradiance and load profiles, forecasting energy shortages, and automatically adjusting MPPT setpoints or battery discharge rates to mitigate shading losses, voltage mismatch, and temperature-induced performance degradation [20]. Conformal and lightweight PV modules benefit from EMS-aware design, as the curvature of the roof, aerodynamic shaping, and distributed electrical connections are considered in real-time control, ensuring maximum power extraction without degradation to module integrity or vehicle performance [19,20]. Multi-source hybridization enables the coordinated operation of PV arrays, lithium-ion or next-generation batteries, and auxiliary power sources, with seamless transition between solar-augmented and standard power during peak load, low irradiance, or extended travel, while maximizing efficiency and minimizing storage device degradation [20]. Additionally, state-of-the-art EMS integrate predictive maintenance and fault diagnosis with real-time module degradation monitoring, connector failure, and energy imbalance monitoring; these systems trigger early remedial actions, reducing unplanned downtime and optimizing operating lifetimes [21]. Recent research emphasizes the importance of integrating EMS with vehicle energy management strategies, enabling PV arrays to not only supply propulsion or auxiliary loads but also actively support regenerative braking, peak shaving, and grid-interactive operations where possible [19, 20].
.jpg)
Contour plot showing the percentage of efficiency retained as a function of bending radius (mm) and number of bending cycles (log scale). Larger bending radii and fewer cycles result in higher efficiency retention.
Novel Materials and Manufacturing Processes
Recent advances in the material and fabrication of solar cells have increasingly emphasized, along with higher energy conversion efficiency, mechanical flexibility, strength, and scalability, the need for these properties to withstand the extreme and dynamic operating conditions of transportation-integrated PVs (TIPVs). Traditional crystalline silicon, while reliable, is constrained by weight, stiffness, and conformability to curved or aerodynamically shaped vehicle surfaces, which has pushed researchers to develop novel absorber materials such as halide perovskites, doped metal oxides, nanostructured heterojunctions, and, more recently, quantum dot composites [22]. Perovskites have been of interest due to their tunable band gaps, high defect tolerance, and lightweight, solution-processable films that can be conformally integrated into car roofs, aircraft fuselage skins, and marine decks without imposing a substantial structural mass [22]. Their designed halide compositions also improve thermal and photostability, necessary to guarantee performance under rapid temperature fluctuations, vibrations, and UV exposure experienced in high-speed driving or flight [22]. Similarly, nanostructured heterojunction layers and doped transition-metal oxides are optimized for both high carrier mobility and stability, allowing modules to sustain output despite mechanical stress or shading, both of which are common on transport surfaces where surfaces continuously move or receive intermittent sunlight [23]. In tandem with the development of absorber layers, significant progress has been made in transparent conductive electrodes, passivation layers, and multifunctional encapsulants that have direct benefits for vehicle integration. These include flexible indium tin oxide alternatives, silver nanowire meshes, and graphene-based electrodes that are conductive when bent, which is apt for curved aerodynamic surfaces such as airplane wings or the hoods of electric vehicles [22, 23]. Advanced encapsulation methods using multilayer polymers and hybrid composites have provided additional protection against moisture, salt corrosion, dust, and chemical pollutants commonly encountered by cars in urban locations, vessels in seawater environments, and aircraft at high altitudes [22]. Passivation layers also reduce non-radiative recombination, enabling high efficiency despite exposure to thermal cycling caused by rapid switching between sun and shade during travel [22]. Cumulatively, these advances extend the lifetimes of modules and reduce the need for regular replacement, a significant economic factor for transportation operators who desire reliable, low-maintenance renewable energy systems. Manufacturing techniques have also evolved in tandem to accommodate these newer materials while enabling scalability to large-area, vehicle-specific applications. Technicians have developed techniques such as roll-to-roll deposition, vapor-phase growth, and solution processing, which enable the high-throughput fabrication of flexible thin-film modules with precise uniformity and minimal defects, as required to produce large, curved panels that can continuously cover bus roofs, truck trailers, or aircraft fuselages [22]. Precision printing and sputtering enable the fine patterning of transparent electrodes and active layers, offering not only efficiency but also compatibility with existing automotive paint and coating flows, without interfering with aerodynamics or aesthetics [23]. Automated lamination and additive manufacturing processes are being developed for mounting PV layers directly onto structural composites, thereby incorporating power generation functionality within the vehicle body while maintaining lightweight construction [22]. Such integration is especially useful in aviation, where every kilogram of weight saved translates to significant fuel efficiency and extended flight range. Another frontier in TIPVs design is quantum dot (QD) solar cells due to their tunable absorption properties, high surface area, and amenability to thin, light substrates [24]. By engineering quantum dots to possess the desired band gaps, these devices can collect a broader spectrum of solar radiation, thereby improving efficiency under mixed irradiance conditions, such as partial shading from buildings during urban mobility or cloud cover on maritime missions [24]. Additionally, their susceptibility to low-cost solution-based synthesis deposition allows for large-area roll-to-roll processing, aligning with the automotive industry's demand for mass-producible, low-cost energy solutions [24]. The inherent flexibility and transparency of quantum dot layers also permit integration into non-standard vehicle surfaces, including side windows, sunroofs, or cockpit canopies, where partial transparency is advantageous [24]. Moreover, integration of quantum dots with plasmonic nanoparticles and perovskite absorbers has been shown to optimize light harvesting and reduce reflection losses, directly addressing the challenge of optimizing energy harvesting on moving platforms where incident sunlight is constantly changing [23, 24]. A comparative materials study emphasizes that efficiency, cost, weight, and environmental robustness are crucial for achieving an important balance in transportation applications, where PV modules must deliver constant power under conditions of mechanical vibration, wind shear, and a corrosive environment [23]. Flexible perovskite and quantum dot modules encapsulated in strong encapsulants, for instance, have demonstrated stability through thousands of bending cycles, simulating the stresses encountered on car roofs or aircraft fuselage panels [22, 24]. Similarly, hybrid encapsulation methods have been demonstrated to be resistant to salt mist corrosion and prolonged UV exposure, specifically addressing the needs of marine cargo vessels [22]. Modular fabrication processes also enable fast replacement and repair, which is critical for large fleets of transport where downtime equates to economic loss [23].
Case Studies – Real-World Applications
Case studies are essential for gaining insights into the actual world’s viability, limitations, and potential of TIPVs, providing empirical proof beyond test-tube efficiency measurements and simulation models. A varied collection of solar-powered car and air vehicle prototypes has been released onto the field in the recent two decades, ranging from theoretical passenger vehicles and buses to test planes and boats, each exposing the delicate trade-off between power generation, system mass, aerodynamics, and cost [25]. Solar car projects, including those featured in the World Solar Challenge, are among the earliest and most well-known, wherein ultra-light, shape-optimized cars with large-area PV arrays have proven capable of long-distance travel powered entirely by sunlight. Even though these vehicles demonstrated the theoretical limit of PV integration in ideal conditions, their scarce passenger capacity, fragile build, and specialized design expressed the disparity between solar racers and mass-market road cars [25]. Bridging the gap, car manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai, and Lightyear have been working on solar-roof ideas for mass-market EVs, testing with smaller, integrated solar modules augmenting grid power. These prototypes, subjected to various climatic regimes, confirmed that the incorporation of embedded solar could introduce substantial daily travel mileage (5–10 km in some urban environments), but also emphasized surface area limitation problems, module lifespan against vibrations, and erratic irradiance in non-desert regions [25]. One of the key learnings from such projects is that grid charging cannot be replaced by solar integration. Still, it can enhance vehicle range, reduce charging frequency, and strengthen resilience in areas with inadequate charging infrastructure [26]. Apart from passenger cars, designs for commercial fleets and buses have also shown considerable promise due to their larger surface areas, flat shapes, and predictable daily driving patterns. Demonstration trials in Asia and Europe integrated flexible PV modules into electric buses, achieving measurable reductions in auxiliary battery load through power supply for HVAC and onboard electronics, which yielded an extended range and reduced operating costs [25]. Fleet vehicle case studies also illustrated that TIPVs offer the most significant advantage in application scenarios where vehicles remain stationary outside for extended periods, such as delivery vans or urban buses, since non-movable exposure can achieve the maximum return from the sun [26]. These lessons have informed the evolution of trials within the logistics industry, where rooftop PVs power energy. At the same time, vehicles are parked at depots, resulting in daily cumulative energy savings and reducing reliance on grid electricity, which is composed of fossil fuels. Notably, demonstration fleet tests have shown that the energy inputs at the system level increase with larger vehicles, and this has consequently suggested a stronger short-term opportunity for TIPVs in heavy transport and commercial vehicle applications than for small passenger cars [25, 26]. Experimental aircraft, such as the Solar Impulse 2, have also extended the boundaries of solar-powered transport, with a 40,000 km circumnavigation of the globe powered solely by onboard PV arrays [25]. This historic demonstration proved the technical feasibility of solar flight and proved the critical function of ultra-lightweight composite structures, high-efficiency PV cells, and energy-dense storage systems. Lessons learned, however, are the extreme limitations imposed by the available surface area relative to power requirements, making full-solar propulsion practically impractical for passenger or cargo aircraft in the near term. Instead, solar aviation projects suggest hybrid applications, where PVs assist in powering avionics, lighting, or auxiliary systems, thereby reducing fuel burn without necessitating the replacement of jet propulsion entirely [25, 26]. Similarly, small solar UAVs, designed for surveillance and environmental observation, also show a potential path, as their low power usage and extended loiter times align with the capabilities of PV generation [25]. In such applications, the integration of TIPVs provides not only survivability but also fuel supply chain independence, an immediate corollary of sustainability and mission resilience goals. Less publicized ship demonstrations have also produced teachable results. Solar-powered yachts and ferries, such as the PlanetSolar ship, which circumnavigated the world, have confirmed that large deck areas can house substantial PV capacity, replacing propulsion and hotel loads [25]. Best practices from these projects also address durability issues unique to the marine environment, including salt corrosion, humidity, and mechanical fatigue caused by wave action, leading to enhanced developments in protection coatings and encapsulation [25]. Importantly, case studies indicate that solar energy is highly applicable to maritime use when combined with hybrid powertrains, utilizing PVs as an auxiliary source of energy rather than as the sole source of propulsion. This hybridization lesson is of universal applicability to all solar-integrated modes of transport, reinforcing that utmost system reliability and scalability are achieved by hybridizing PVs with alternative power sources [26]. Lessons derived from the collective experiences of these mixed demonstration projects reinforce that sole solar integration is insufficient to decarbonize transportation. Still, it can be a useful facilitator of extended range, reduced auxiliary loads, and greater resilience against grid limitations when utilized strategically. Across road, air, and sea case studies, most recurrent lessons are: (1) TIPVs are optimal on high surface area big vehicles with normal duty cycles; (2) planning for integration needs to consider environment robustness from road shocks to saltwater corrosion; (3) solar panels perform best as range extender additions, not alternatives to conventional charging or refueling; and (4) demonstration projects are an essential go-between between laboratory breakthroughs and real-world engineering ingenuity.
Future Research
The development of next-generation integration of solar power in vehicles and airplanes must be a multidisciplinary effort that draws on advances in PV materials, system integration, aerodynamics, storage devices, manufacturing technology, and policy infrastructure to surmount the current barriers to the widespread application of this technology. One such frontier is the development of lighter, more efficient, and flexible PV modules that can be readily integrated into the complex shapes of automobiles, buses, trucks, and aircraft. Current silicon solar cells, although mature, still fall short because they are brittle and have an unfavorable power-to-weight ratio, which is a transportation-limiting feature where aerodynamic efficiency and low structural weight are paramount. Emerging newcomers, such as perovskite–silicon tandem cells, CIGS, and organic PVs, possess solution capabilities because their band gaps can be tuned, they are mechanically flexible, and they can be used on curved car bodywork [27]. Other than that, knowledge mapping research into solar cell technology has established that perovskite research is one of the fastest-growing frontiers, holding a lot of potential for applications in mobile energy systems due to its high efficiency and low-cost production [28]. However, long-term reliability in real service conditions remains uncertain, and future work will therefore need to focus on encapsulation methods, self-healing materials, and ultraviolet-stable, thermally cycled, and mechanically strained nanostructured films for long-term automotive applications [28]. However, another area of research that is badly needed is enhancing PV efficiency under sub-ideal environmental conditions, as vehicles are likely to experience permanent shading, irradiance fluctuations, and suboptimal tilt conditions. Studies on light-trapping nanostructures, plasmonic interfaces, and adaptive surface texturing hold promise for achieving maximum energy harvesting under varying sunlight conditions. Transparent or semi-transparent solar films offer opportunities for energy collection on surfaces such as windows and windshields [28]. In addition to materials, upcoming studies must account for the development of trustworthy EMS and intricate power electronics that realize the maximum real-time power distributions provided by the sun. Since driving motors entail load fluctuations, from propulsion to assistive loads such as air-conditioning, lighting, and entertainment, a high-level supervisory system is required to determine when solar power should be utilized to directly power traction motors, when it should be redirected to storage, and when it should serve as a supplement to charging from the grid or batteries. Hybrid cars that combine solar power with next-generation lithium-ion, solid-state, or hydrogen fuel cell storage are one of the primary paths to green mobility, offering dependability with minimal reliance on off-board charging infrastructure [27]. It is vital for the aviation sector, where a reliable power supply is essential for safe operation, and where solar-battery or solar-hydrogen configurations can provide redundancy. Future applications will also be required to address the issue of maximizing surface area utilization without incurring aerodynamic penalties. On terrestrial vehicles, on-board PV modules on rooftops, hoods, and even side doors offer promising opportunities but require balancing energy advantages against drag penalties. On aeronautical spacecraft, lift-over-drag ratios dictate flight efficiency; ultra-thin and conformal solar coatings with minimal added aerodynamic resistance will be explored vigorously [27]. Manufacturing procedures also require thorough scrutiny, as the mass production of solar PV modules integrated into vehicles must be economical, durable, and sustainable. Existing manufacturing methods remain energy- and resource-intensive, which hinders scalability. Roll-to-roll processing of solar thin-film cells, low-temperature deposition techniques, and recyclable encapsulants must be explored to render transport integrated with solar power economically feasible and ecologically friendly [28]. At the same time, future studies will need to increase coverage to include lifecycle analyses and end-of-life solar module management in vehicles. In the absence of circular economy recycling and reuse models for PV materials, vast deployment threatens to shift the sustainability burden to waste management streams. Knowledge mapping programs in the field of solar technology have established research requirements in systematic research priority planning, green recycling protocols, degradation of perovskites, tandem designs, and have been recognized as central research clusters [28]. Connected solar mobility with intelligent grids and integral energy networks is another area of research. Solar autos that offer bidirectional charging will not only be mobility assets but also neighborhood energy resources, feeding back surplus solar energy into local grids or powering microgrids to serve isolated or disaster-affected communities [27]. Research on vehicle-to-grid infrastructure tailored to solar autos will therefore be a significant leap. Policy and infrastructure issues also need to be addressed in future research priorities, as the successful development of solar-integrated cars is contingent upon supportive policies, coordination among industries, and public acceptance. Pilot tests have demonstrated the viability of range extension using solar energy. Still, only fleet scales will result from research on safety standards for integrated PV modules, certification practices for longevity, and the creation of new charging ecosystems that harmonize solar generation with existing EV infrastructure [27]. Secondly, socio-economic studies will investigate how consumers' willingness to pay, acceptance, and the availability of distributed solar resources in different regions influence adoption levels. Thirdly, subsequent research would need to leverage the potential of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence, digital twins, and optimization computing to accelerate innovation. Artificial intelligence-driven predictive models can simulate the optimal settings for integrating PVs across a range of driving habits, climates, and geographic locations. Digital twins of solar cars can permit real-time monitoring of module health, energy generation, and thermal loads, enabling continuous improvement [28].
Conclusion
VIPVs are seen as a viable environment- and nature-promoting transportation source, as solar energy is provided onboard, along with batteries, so that vehicles do not have to depend entirely on external charging resources. Advancements in material options have also led to greater efficiency, durability, and higher adaptability under real-world conditions, as seen in perovskite-silicon tandem cells, flexible modules, semi-transparent solar films, and intelligent EMS. Demonstration projects for cars, buses, aircraft, and ships highlight their lucrative benefits and practical constraints, including surface area, mechanical stress, and intermittent sunlight, which present environmental challenges. In short, VIPVs is an appealing way to extend range while reducing emissions and protecting energy security; however, further studies are needed to bridge the gaps between material optimization, integration, and lifecycle sustainability before it can be adopted on a mass scale.
Dr. Raj Shah, is a Director at Koehler Instrument Company in New York, where he has worked for the last 25 plus years. He is an elected Fellow by his peers at ASTM, IChemE, ASTM, AOCS, CMI, STLE, AIC, NLGI, INSTMC, Institute of Physics, The Energy Institute and The Royal Society of Chemistry. An ASTM Eagle award recipient, Dr. Shah recently coedited the bestseller, “Fuels and Lubricants handbook”, details of which are available at ASTM’s Long-awaited Fuels and Lubricants Handbook https://bit.ly/3u2e6GY. He earned his doctorate in Chemical Engineering from The Pennsylvania State University and is a Fellow from The Chartered Management Institute, London. Dr. Shah is also a Chartered Scientist with the Science Council, a Chartered Petroleum Engineer with the Energy Institute and a Chartered Engineer with the Engineering council, UK. Dr. Shah was recently granted the honorific of “Eminent engineer” with Tau beta Pi, the largest engineering society in the USA. He is on the Advisory board of directors at Farmingdale university (Mechanical Technology), Auburn Univ (Tribology), SUNY, Farmingdale, (Engineering Management) and State university of NY, Stony Brook (Chemical engineering/ Material Science and engineering). An Adjunct Professor at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, in the Department of Material Science and Chemical Engineering, Raj also has over 725 publications and has been active in the energy industry for over 3 decades. More information on Raj can be found at https://shorturl.at/JDPZN
Mr. Mathew Roshan and Mr. Syed Tashin are Chemical and Molecular Engineering Undergraduate Students at Stony Brook University and interns at Koehler Instrument Company, Holtsville, NY
Works Cited
[1] International Energy Agency (IEA). (2023). Global EV Outlook 2023: Scaling up the transition to electric mobility. Paris: IEA.
[2] Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE. (2023). Vehicle-Integrated PVs (VIPV): Market and Technology Developments. Freiburg: Fraunhofer ISE.
[3] Green, M. A., Dunlop, E. D., Hohl-Ebinger, J., Yoshita, M., Kopidakis, N., & Hao, X. (2024). Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 64). Progress in PVs: Research and Applications
[4] United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). (2022). Electric vehicles and renewable integration: Policy frameworks and standards for sustainable mobility. Geneva: UNECE.
[5] Mayyas, A., Ruth, M., Pivovar, B., Bender, G., & Wipke, K. (2022). Manufacturing energy and greenhouse gas emissions associated with PVs and battery technologies. Nature Sustainability
[6] A. Jannesar Niri, G. A. Poelzer, S. E. Zhang, J. Rosenkranz, M. Pettersson, and Y. Ghorbani, “Sustainability challenges throughout the electric vehicle battery value chain,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
[7] M. Köntges, M. Siebert, A. Morlier, R. Illing, N. Bessing, and F. Wegert, “Impact of transportation on silicon wafer-based PV modules,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl.
[8] R. Vaillon, S. Parola, C. Lamnatou, and D. Chemisana, “Solar cells operating under thermal stress,” Cell Reports Physical Science, vol. 1, no. 12, p. 100267, Dec. 2020.
[9] V. V. Plotnikov, C. W. Carter, J. M. Stayancho, N. R. Paudel, H. Mahabaduge, and D. Kwon, “Semitransparent PV windows with sputtered CdS/CdTe thin films,” IEEE Journal of PVs, 2021.
[10] F. Kessler, D. Herrmann, and M. Powalla, “Approaches to flexible CIGS thin-film solar cells,” Progress in PVs: Research and Applications, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 261–274, 2014.
[11] M. Jošt, et al., “Perovskite–silicon tandem solar cells: from laboratory to industrial production,” Nature Energy, vol. 5, pp. 852–860, 2020
[12] R. Geisz, et al., “Six-junction III–V solar cells with 47.1% conversion efficiency under 143 Suns concentration,” Nature Energy, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 326–335, 2020.
[13] H. Sahli, et al., “Fully textured monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with 25.2% power conversion efficiency,” Nature Materials, vol. 17, pp. 820–826, 2018.
[14] S. Kim, M. Holz, S. Park, Y. Yoon, E. Cho, and J. Yi, “Future Options for Lightweight PV Modules in Electrical Passenger Cars,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 5, p. 2532, Feb. 2021
[15] Y. Ota, K. Araki, A. Nagaoka, and K. Nishioka, “Facilitating vehicle-integrated PVs by considering the radius of curvature of the roof surface for solar cell coverage,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 215, p. 110649, Oct. 2020.
[16] J. Sun and J. J. Jasieniak, “Semi-transparent solar cells,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., vol. 50, no. 9, p. 093001, Feb. 2017
[17] X. Tan and Y. Li, “Innovations and challenges in semi-transparent perovskite solar cells: A mini review of advancements toward sustainable energy solutions,” J. Compos. Sci., vol. 8, no. 11, p. 458, Nov. 2024
[18] C. M. Lampert, “Smart switchable glazing for solar energy and daylight control,” IEEE
[19] D. Rekioua, Z. Mokrani, K. Kakouche, A. Oubelaid, T. Rekioua, M. Alhazmi, E. Ali, M. Bajaj, S. A. D. Mohammadi, and S. S. M. Ghoneim, "Coordinated power management strategy for reliable hybridization of multi-source systems using hybrid MPPT algorithms," Scientific Reports, vol. 14, Art. no. 10267, 2024.
[20] C. D. Rodríguez-Gallegos, L. Vinayagam, O. Gandhi, G. M. Yagli, M. S. Alvarez-Alvarado, D. Srinivasan, T. Reindl, and S. K. Panda, "Novel forecast-based dispatch strategy optimization for PV hybrid systems in real time," 2024.
[21] N. Pothirasan, M. Pallikonda Rajasekaran, and V. Muneeswaran, "Real-time reactive power compensation for battery/PV hybrid power source for internet of hybrid electric vehicle system," 2024.
[22] B. P. Singh, S. K. Goyal, and P. Kumar, “Solar PV cell materials and technologies: Analyzing the recent developments,”
[23] N. Kant and P. Singh, “Review of next generation PV solar cell technology and comparative materialistic development,”
[24] S. N. Sharma, P. Semalti, B. Bhawna, and A. S. Rao, “Pioneering advancements in quantum dot solar cells: Innovations in synthesis and cutting-edge applications,
[25] O. J. Oluwalana and K. Grzesik, “Solar-Powered Electric Vehicles: Comprehensive Review of Technology Advancements, Challenges, and Future Prospects,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 14, art. no. 3650, Jul. 2025
[26] A. Rahim, S. Agarwal, G. Gupta, R. Singh, and P. K. Malik, “Efficient Use of Renewable Solar Energy Resource for Electric Vehicles: Opportunities and Challenges,” Engineering Reports, vol. 7, no. 2, p. 1, Feb. 2025
[27] J. Heeraman, R. Kalyani, and B. Amala, “Towards a Sustainable Future: Design and Fabrication of a Solar-Powered Electric Vehicle,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1285, 1st Int. Conf. on Sustainable Energy Sources, Technologies and Systems (ICSESTS 2023), Phagwara, India, Aug. 2023, Art. no. 012035, 2024
[28] I. Park, K. Lee, and B. Yoon, “Exploring Promising Research Frontiers Based on Knowledge Maps in the Solar Cell Technology Field,” Sustainability, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 13660–13689, Oct. 2015
The content & opinions in this article are the author’s and do not necessarily represent the views of AltEnergyMag
Comments (0)
This post does not have any comments. Be the first to leave a comment below.
Featured Product
