Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries are emerging as a cost-effective and sustainable alternative to lithium-ion batteries in personal electric vehicles. This comprehensive review explores the latest advancements in sodium-ion battery technology, focusing on cathode and anode materials, electrolyte systems, thermal safety, and electrochemical performance. Sodium is widely available and more environmentally benign than lithium, offering benefits such as lower raw material costs, improved safety, and operational stability across broad temperature ranges. Despite these strengths, sodium-ion batteries currently face challenges such as lower energy density, shorter cycle life, and immature supply chains. Recent innovations in high-voltage cathodes, hard carbon anodes, and composite polymer electrolytes are actively addressing these limitations. This review evaluates whether sodium-ion batteries can serve as practical replacements or complementary systems to lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicle applications. Through a critical comparison of performance metrics and material developments, the paper highlights the potential of sodium-ion technology to meet growing energy storage demands while promoting environmental sustainability and reducing reliance on geopolitically constrained lithium resources.

Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions drastically. EVs rely on a large bank of batteries that can store energy, which can then be provided to the motors as necessary. Lithium-ion batteries have become the core industry standard for EV applications due to their high energy density and relatively mature technology. Despite their benefits for industrial applications, ethical, environmental, and logistical concerns surrounding lithium mining indicate that lithium-based batteries remain an imperfect solution and highlight the need for alternative battery technologies. Among these alternatives, the sodium-ion battery is a promising alternative. Sodium is much more abundant than lithium, while also being more stable and safer. Further, sodium batteries can be used as drop-in replacements for lithium batteries due to their similar electrochemistry. Despite these benefits, sodium ions have a lower energy density, which can lead to efficiency issues due to the increased weight. Regardless, sodium-ion batteries have the potential to supplement lithium's role in the EV industry through hybrid systems or as a competitive alternative when issues arise due to the lithium supply chain bottlenecks. This review compiles literature regarding sodium-ion batteries to assess their viability option for replacing lithium-ion batteries in EVs. 

Comparative analysis of Sodium and lithium for battery usage

Lithium-ion technology is very mature, having had significant investments over the last 20 years. However, companies are currently seeking alternatives to lithium due to environmental concerns and supply chain issues stemming from widespread demand and geopolitical instability.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are renowned for their high energy density, typically ranging from 250 to 300 Wh/kg, making them ideal for portable and electric vehicle applications. This high energy density allows for longer operating times and greater storage capacity, making them the preferred choice for many devices that require compact and efficient power sources. Additionally, Li-ion batteries have a relatively long cycle life, typically between 500 to 1000 cycles, and exhibit low self-discharge rates. These attributes contribute to their widespread adoption in various industries, including consumer electronics and electric vehicles (EVs) [1]. However, there are some drawbacks to consider when using Li-ion technology.

One of the primary weaknesses of lithium-ion batteries is their safety concerns. Li-ion batteries use flammable organic electrolytes, which can lead to thermal runaway, a condition in which the battery generates excessive heat, potentially resulting in fires or explosions. This safety risk is particularly concerning in high-energy applications, where a failure could cause significant damage. Moreover, Li-ion batteries suffer from cathode degradation over time, which leads to a gradual loss in capacity, typically between 12-24%. This degradation impacts the longevity and performance of the battery, raising concerns about their long-term use, especially in applications where durability is essential [2]. Another significant weakness lies in the geopolitical risks associated with lithium production. Chile, which produces around 23-30% of the world's lithium, plays a key role in the global supply chain. Any changes in Chile's supply policies, such as nationalization or stricter environmental regulations, could destabilize the global lithium market, leading to fluctuations in prices and availability [3].

On the other hand, sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries offer promising opportunities as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries. One of the main advantages of Na-ion batteries is that sodium is more abundant and widely distributed around the world, unlike lithium, which is concentrated in specific regions. This widespread availability could provide a more stable supply chain and reduce price volatility. Additionally, sodium-ion batteries are generally considered safer than lithium-ion batteries, as they do not rely on flammable electrolytes, thus avoiding the risk of thermal runaway. As research progresses, sodium-ion batteries may also see improvements in their energy density, making them more competitive with lithium-ion batteries, particularly in stationary energy storage applications where weight and size are less critical.

However, despite their advantages, sodium-ion batteries currently face significant challenges. The most notable of these is their lower energy density, which typically ranges from 100 to 160 Wh/kg, much lower than the energy density of lithium-ion batteries [4]. This makes sodium-ion batteries less suitable for applications where high energy density is crucial, such as in electric vehicles. While sodium-ion technology has made strides in improving energy density, it still lags behind lithium-ion batteries in terms of performance for portable and high-power applications. Therefore, while sodium-ion batteries present an attractive alternative for certain use cases, such as grid storage, their lower energy density remains a fundamental limitation in their widespread adoption for mobile applications.

Lithium carbonate prices have experienced significant volatility, rising from around $6,000 per ton in 2020 to a peak of over $70,000 per ton in 2022, before settling between $10,000 and $25,000 per ton in 2024. This price fluctuation, combined with stricter environmental regulations such as those addressing water use and chemical pollution in mining regions, creates external risks for the development of lithium-ion batteries. Additionally, sodium-ion and solid-state technologies are increasingly competing with lithium-ion batteries in the market [5]. Sodium, which makes up 2.3-2.8% of the Earth's crust, is abundant in minerals like feldspars and halite. In contrast, lithium is far less abundant, comprising only about 0.002% of the Earth's crust, making sodium approximately 1,000 times more abundant than lithium [6]. As a result, sodium-ion batteries offer a more sustainable raw material source. The cost of sodium-ion battery cells is currently between $80 and $110 per kWh, with an industry average of $87 per kWh. In comparison, lithium-ion cells typically range from $120 to $150 per kWh, with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) cells costing around $113 per kWh, and the pack-level cost of lithium-ion batteries around $151 per kWh [7], [8]. Sodium-ion batteries benefit from superior thermal stability. Sodium salts are more resistant to decomposition than lithium salts, which delays thermal runaway and allows sodium-ion batteries to endure higher temperatures. These batteries also perform well across a wide operational range, from approximately -30°C to 60°C, maintaining good capacity retention in cold environments and reduced fire hazards when shipped at zero charge [9]. However, sodium-ion batteries face significant challenges, including lower energy density, shorter cycle life, and underdeveloped supply chains. Additionally, there is a lack of recycling infrastructure. Despite these challenges, opportunities for sodium-ion batteries exist, particularly in projects led by companies like CATL and Faradion, as well as in hybrid systems that combine sodium and lithium technologies. However, production capacity for sodium-ion batteries remains immature. In summary, while sodium-ion batteries offer advantages such as lower cost and improved thermal stability, they are hindered by lower energy density and cycle life compared to lithium-ion batteries, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of lithium-ion batteries and sodium-ion batteries [10].

With ongoing research and development, including hybrid systems, sodium-ion batteries may emerge as a competitive alternative in specific applications.

Cathode material advances for sodium-ion batteries

Significant materials research is underway to improve the performance of sodium-ion batteries to make them more competitive with lithium-ion batteries. Cathodes generally determine the energy density, cycle stability, and overall performance of a battery [11]. Therefore, they should have high structural stability, effective sodium-ion storage capacity, and good conductivity. Yunfei Long et al. (2020) and subsequent reviews recognize A₂MPO₄F (A = Li/Na, M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) fluorophosphate cathodes as high‑energy materials (~300 mAh/g capacity, >1,000 Wh/kg energy density), capable of operating at high voltages (≥5 V), making them a compelling class of next‑generation cathode candidates [12]. Researchers are still working on improving synthesis techniques for this cathode.

Another cathode material is Sodium Vanadium Phosphate (Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃), which has a stable framework and fast sodium diffusion. However, it has poor electrical conductivity, making it inefficient [13]. The problem of electrical conductivity is solved with recent strategies like carbon hybridization, doping, and increasing porosity. Carbon hybridization combines active material with conductive carbon, doping introduces foreign atoms to change electronic properties, and increasing porosity is improves the surface areas for reaction. Sulfate-based cathodes like Na₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃ offer high voltage while also being abundant [14].

Another promising cathode material is Prussian Blue Analogues (PBAs). PBAs are a class of open-framework coordination compounds characterized by a three-dimensional lattice formed via cyanide-bridged transition metal centers. Their general formula is typically represented as AₓM[M′(CN)₆]·nH₂O, where M′ is a transition metal (such as Fe, Co, or Mn) occupying the central position of the hexacyanometallate anion [M′(CN)₆]³⁻ or [M′(CN)₆]⁴⁻, and M is a second transition metal ion coordinated through the nitrogen end of the cyanide ligand. The interstitial sites within the lattice are occupied by alkali metal cations (Aₓ, e.g., Na⁺, K⁺) to maintain charge neutrality, and the structure commonly incorporates zeolitic and coordinated water molecules (nH₂O) [15], [16]. Owing to their robust framework, tunable redox properties, and facile ion diffusion channels, PBAs have emerged as promising cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries and other energy storage systems. Although PBAs like AₓM[M′(CN)₆]·nH₂O offer open frameworks for Na⁺ storage, they suffer from structural instability during cycling, where they lose crystal water and develop ligand vacancies, reducing the Na⁺ content and degrading performance. Strategies to mitigate these issues include optimizing synthesis to reduce defects and water, applying protective coatings, and doping at the atomic level (e.g. K⁺, Ni, Co, Cu, Cr) to enhance structural integrity, redox activity, and electronic conductivity [17], [18], [19, p. 4].

Anode materials advances for sodium-ion batteries

There are also improvements made to the anode material for the sodium-ion batteries. The anode is important for determining energy density, cycling stability, and charge or discharge efficiency [20]. Transition metal sulfides like WS₂ have high theoretical capacity, but the volume expands during cycles and has poor conductivity [21]. To address these limitations, nanostructuring strategies can be employed to enhance structural stability, while compositing with conductive carbon materials mitigates degradation by improving electronic conductivity and buffering volume changes at the nanoscale [22]. Phosphorus-based anodes like black phosphorus have high capacity but also face a volume change [23]. Further research is exploring the use of carbon-based composites and nanoscale engineering to design for better cycling.

Other anodes also include SnS nanoparticles with graphene that improves conductivity and structural integrity [24], S/N doped carbon that has high capacity and long cycle life [25], and Vanadium-based oxides that are low in cost [26], [27]. Hard carbon, a disordered carbon with turbostratic graphitic domains and nanopores, enables dual-mode sodium storage, intercalation between layers and pore filling,achieving capacities of 250–400 mAh/g. This occurs at low operating voltages (≈0 V vs Na⁺/Na) and offers good cycle stability due to buffered structural flexibility [28]. Soft carbon exhibits more graphitic ordering and lower porosity, typically resulting in lower capacities (150–250 mAh/g [29]), though performance can be enhanced via heteroatom doping (e.g., nitrogen) and conductive additives [30]. Pristine graphite has limited sodium storage due to its narrow interlayer spacing, which impedes Na⁺ intercalation under standard conditions [31]. Carbon storage also faces some challenges, like low initial coulombic efficiency caused by irreversible electrolyte reactions and capacity decreasing over time as the surface degrades or pores collapse [32]. When using hard carbon, the sodium-ion battery follows what is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic of Na-ion storage in hard carbon, depicting adsorption, intercalation, and nanopore filling

There are three main steps: adsorption, intercalation, and nanopore filling. Adsorption has Na⁺ weakly binding to the surface of the carbon material used and contributes to the initial capacity. Intercalation is when the Na⁺ is inserted into gaps between graphene-like layers, being easier to do for hard carbon compared to more ordered graphite. Nanopore filling allows Na⁺ to go through nanopores with amorphous regions, which then ensures stability over cycles [32].

Electrolytes

The role of the electrolyte is to enable Na⁺ movement between the anode and cathode during charge and discharge; therefore, it must be compatible with the electrodes with high conductivity [32]. Several types of electrolytes are used for the battery: liquid-state, solid-state, composite, and polymer-based electrolytes. Liquid-state electrolytes are preferred due to their high ionic conductivity, which enables fast charge and discharge, as well as having a high-power density while also being compatible with the electrodes. For example, NaPF₆ is widely studied for having high ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability, and solubility. However, there are safety risks since liquid-state electrolytes use organic solvents like EC, DMC, and PC, which can be flammable during thermal runaway [32].

Solid-state electrolytes are inherently nonflammable and do not suffer from liquid leakage, offering significantly enhanced safety compared to traditional liquid electrolytes. This substantially lowers the risk of fire and thermal runaway, which are critical concerns for electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage applications [33]. Solid-state electrolytes typically exhibit lower room-temperature ionic conductivities (approximately 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹) compared to liquid electrolytes (around 10⁻² S cm⁻¹). However, advanced ceramic and sulfide-based solid-state electrolytes, including glass–ceramic sulfides, argyrodite compounds such as Li₆PS₅Cl, and phosphate ceramics like LAGP, have started to achieve competitive conductivities when optimized [34], which has potential to improve both lithium and sodium based batteries.

Solid-state electrolytes are typically classified into four main categories based on their composition and structural characteristics: inorganic ceramics, glass-ceramics, organic polymers, and composite electrolytes. Inorganic ceramics consist of crystalline oxide or sulfide electrolytes, which are known for their high mechanical strength and thermal stability [35]. Glass-ceramics, a combination of amorphous and crystalline phases, enhance ionic transport by providing more favorable pathways for ion migration [35]. Organic polymers, such as solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) and gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), offer flexibility and ease of processing. However, they typically require plasticizers or salts to achieve acceptable conductivity. GPEs are sodium salts dissolved in a polyethylene oxide-based gel matrix, with plasticizers added to reduce polymer crystallization and increase conductivity. GPEs are especially valued in high-performance sodium-ion batteries due to their high ionic conductivity and flexibility [32]. SPEs, on the other hand, are composed of sodium salts and pure polymers, often modified with nanomaterials like SiO₂ or TiO₂ to enhance conductivity and strength. While SPEs offer the advantage of being non-volatile and leakage-free, they suffer from low room-temperature conductivity, which can be improved by incorporating nanofillers [32]. Polymer electrolytes are sodium salts embedded into a polymer matrix, which is flexible, lightweight, easy to process, and non-volatile, making it safe and not prone to leakage [37].

Composite electrolytes combine polymers and ceramics to achieve the mechanical benefits of ceramics along with the flexibility and processability of polymers. This hybrid approach addresses the challenge of balancing high ionic conductivity with maintaining flexibility, a limitation commonly faced by single-phase electrolytes. In particular, composite solid-state electrolytes, formed by integrating ceramic fillers into polymer matrices, significantly enhance ionic conductivity (~10⁻³ S/cm), mechanical integrity, and interfacial compatibility, overcoming the typical trade-offs between conductivity and flexibility [36]. Composite polymer electrolytes, which are hybrids of polymer and ceramic components, offer higher ionic conductivity compared to pure SPEs and exhibit better thermal and electrochemical stability, making them suitable for use across a wider temperature range. However, like other polymer-based electrolytes, they may still face issues with conductivity at room temperatures, which can be addressed with the addition of plasticizers or nanofillers [32]. A summary of the different electrolytes is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Compares liquid electrolytes, solid-state electrolytes, and polymer electrolytes, showing the advantages and challenges of each type [32].

Conclusions

Sodium-ion batteries offer a compelling alternative to lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles and grid storage applications. Their key advantages include low cost, material abundance, and enhanced safety, particularly under extreme temperature conditions. While sodium-ion batteries still fall short in energy density and cycle life compared to their lithium counterparts, ongoing innovations are closing the performance gap. Advances in cathode materials such as Prussian Blue analogues and transition metal fluorophosphates improve capacity and cycling stability. Anode developments, particularly in hard carbon and doped carbon structures, enhance sodium storage and structural resilience. Electrolyte research is also evolving, with polymer and composite systems delivering improved conductivity and safer operation. These combined efforts position sodium-ion batteries as a viable technology for sustainable energy storage in personal electric vehicles, especially where cost and safety are prioritized. Continued research into scalable manufacturing, material optimization, and system integration will be essential to fully realize the commercial potential of this promising battery chemistry.

Dr. Raj Shah is a Director at Koehler Instrument Company in New York, Holtsville, NY. He is an elected Fellow by his peers at  ASTM, IChemE, CMI, STLE, AIC, NLGI, INSTMC, AOCS, Institute of Physics, The Energy Institute and  The Royal Society of Chemistry. An ASTM Eagle award recipient, Dr. Shah recently coedited the bestseller, “Fuels and Lubricants handbook”, details of which are available at ASTM’s Long-Awaited Fuels and Lubricants Handbook 2nd Edition Now Available (https://bit.ly/3u2e6GY).He earned his doctorate in Chemical Engineering from The Pennsylvania State University and is a Fellow from The Chartered Management Institute, London. Dr. Shah is also a Chartered Scientist with the Science Council, a Chartered Petroleum Engineer with the Energy Institute and a Chartered Engineer with the Engineering council, UK. Dr. Shah was recently granted the honourific of “Eminent engineer” with Tau beta Pi, the largest engineering society in the USA. He is on the Advisory board of directors at Farmingdale university (Mechanical Technology) , Auburn Univ ( Tribology ), SUNY, Farmingdale, (Engineering Management) and State university of NY, Stony Brook ( Chemical engineering/ Material Science and engineering). An Adjunct Professor at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, in the Department of Material Science and Chemical engineering, Raj also has approximately 700 publications and has been active in the energy industry for over 3 decades. More information on Raj can be found at  https://shorturl.at/Xm60b and at https://bit.ly/3QvfaLX
Contact: rshah@koehlerinstrument.com

Ms. Ivy Li, Mr. Mathew Roshan, Mr. William Chen, Ms. Michael Lotwin are all part of a thriving internship alternative energy program at Koehler Instrument company in Holtsville, and study Chemical Engineering at Stony Brook University, Long Island, NY where Dr. Shah is the current chair of the external advisory board of directors.

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The content & opinions in this article are the author’s and do not necessarily represent the views of AltEnergyMag

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